Education, as a social agency, may have different purposes according to different theorists. From a Marxist perspective, education and the school system prepare children for the labor industry. As he argues in Das Kapital “In a rational state of society every child whatever, from the age of 9 years, ought to become a productive labourer in the same way that no able-bodied adult person ought to be exempted from the general law of nature, to work in order to be able to eat, and work not only with the brain but with the hands too.” 

 It may be viewed as a way to strengthen the capitalist system by constructing a false consciousness to some extent too. Karl Marx has been brutally critical of the political aspect of education. 

“I have been in many schools, where I have seen rows of children doing absolutely nothing; and this is certified as school attendance, and, in statistical returns, such children are set down as being educated.”

Although education is an important part of socialization, in most cases, it internalizes the oppressive rules in children’s minds and prepares them for industrial services.  Marx placed full blame on the government for requiring the education of working children only with the greatest reluctance and with as many loopholes in its legal requirements as possible. (Small, 1982) 

“We consider the tendency of modern industry to make children and juvenile persons of both sexes co-operate in the great work of social production, as a progressive, sound legitimate tendency, although under capital it was distorted into an abomination.

education of the future is to be found in the factory system.”

Marx did bring up an optimistic view on the true purpose of education-

This will be an education that, in the case of every child over a certain age, will combine productive labor with instruction and physical culture, not only as a means for increasing social production but as the only way of producing fully developed human beings.

Marx believed that education should consider all the activities that help people develop personally, as these activities are influenced by ongoing societal changes.

References-

Marx, Karl. 1996. Das Kapital. Edited by Friedrich Engels. Washington, D.C., DC: Regnery Publishing.

Small, Richard. 1982. “Work, Play and School in Marx’s Views on Education.” The Journal of Educational Thought (JET) / Revue de La Pensée Éducative 16(3): 161–173. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23768316]

This paper argues that impoverished societies fall into the trap of creating anomie repetitively. Social cohesion is one of the core conditions for a peaceful society. According to Émile Durkheim, social cohesion refers to the bonds that bring individuals together and create a collective consciousness. He argued that social cohesion is rooted in shared values and norms and is essential for maintaining social order and solidarity. Durkheim believed that social cohesion could be achieved through shared experiences, such as religious rituals, and that it was essential for creating a sense of belonging and identity. Social cohesion is necessary for social progress and a healthy and functioning society. The impoverished societies usually do not have a great social cohesion as they cannot provide their members with the basic needs including the best education. Lack of education downsizes morale and social cohesion. Firstly, most poor people do not send their children o school. Secondly, lower pay scale for the teachers also downsize their ethical sensitivity. They do not like to put effort for the students. Consequently, the children do not learn the morals and ethics to live in a society. They cannot differentiate between right and wrong and therefore anomie takes place. Anomie refers to a lack of moral guidance or social norms, leading to confusion and chaos. It can occur when an individual’s values and goals conflict with those of their society. Anomie is associated with feelings of alienation, purposelessness, and disintegration. according to Durkheim’s theory, anomie can lead to crime. Anomie creates an environment in which criminal behavior is more likely to occur. Individuals feel disconnected from society and lack a sense of moral guidance, which can lead to deviant behavior and criminal activity.  Limited economic opportunities, lack of social integration, not learning critical thinking or problem solving skills are some reasons people may take wrong path. Durkheim argued that when social norms are unclear or absent, individuals are more likely to pursue their own self-interest without regard for the well-being of others, leading to a rise in criminal behavior. Additionally, anomie can lead to feelings of frustration, disorientation, and disillusionment, which can also contribute to higher crime rates.

Moody, J., & White, D. R. (2003). Structural cohesion and embeddedness: A hierarchical concept of social groups. American sociological review, 103-127.

According to a report by Civil Rights Data Collection (Issue March 2014),  African American students are often located in schools with less qualified teachers, teachers with lower salaries and novice teachers. Another report in 2016 by the U.S. Department of Education Office for Civil Rights showed that African American students are less likely than white students to have access to college-ready courses. In fact, in 2011-12, only 57 percent of black students had access to a full range of math and science courses necessary for college readiness, compared to 81 percent of Asian American students and 71 percent of white students.

These findings resonate with Coleman’s social capital theory, which emphasizes the role of social support systems in shaping individuals’ educational outcomes. Coleman argues that social capital, akin to a support network, plays a crucial role in decision-making processes, especially in education. The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities, as evidenced by the reports, implies the importance of understanding and addressing disparities in social capital access. Coleman’s perspective sheds light on how social capital dynamics contribute to educational inequalities experienced by African American students and underscores the need for interventions to promote equitable access to resources and opportunities in education.

According to Coleman’s social capital theory – The function identified by the concept of “social capital” is the value of these aspects of social structure to actors as resources that they can use to achieve their interests. (Coleman, 1988 p. 101). A type of social capital is a social support system that helps people navigate their way through different social situations. Whether a particular social setup counts as social capital depends on how well it helps individuals achieve their goals. Coleman criticizes the popular idea about social capital, saying it actually plays a big role in how people make decisions, especially when it comes to education. (Coleman, 1990) He believes it’s more evenly spread out in society compared to things like money or skills. 

Family background, as a form of social capital- can be broken down into three distinct components: financial capital, human capital, and social capital. Financial capital is usually gauged by a family’s wealth or income, providing resources like a dedicated study space, learning materials, and financial stability. Human capital is roughly measured by parents’ education levels, offering a conducive cognitive environment for the child’s learning. 

Student from the black race has a deprivation of social capital, compared to the other groups. They are also victims of prejudice and bias by teachers and fellow classmates. Black children lack the social connection and often live in impoverished neighborhoods. In 2022, 17.1 percent of Black people living in the United States were living below the poverty line, compared to 8.6 percent of white people. (Statista, 2022) Overall, this impacts their school achievement. This also plays a major role in social reproduction. 

Resources-

Civil Rights Data Collection. 2014. “Data Snapshot: Teacher Equity, Issue Brief No. 4 (March 2014)

Coleman, James S. 1990. “Commentary: Social Institutions and Social Theory.” American Sociological Review 55(3): 333-339.

Coleman, James S. 1988. “Social Capital in the Creation of Human Capital.” American Journal of Sociology 94(Supplement): S95-S120.

Statista Research Department. 2023. “U.S. Poverty Rate in the United States 2022, by Race and Ethnicity.” Published November 3.

U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights. 2016. “A First Look: Key Data Highlights on Equity and Opportunity Gaps in Our Nation’s Public Schools.” New Release for 2016.

“Habitualization” and “Institutionalization” are key concepts in the sociological theory of knowledge, particularly as outlined by Peter Berger and Thomas Luckmann in their influential work “The Social Construction of Reality.” Habitualization refers to the process by which social actions and interactions become routine and ingrained in everyday life. Institutionalization builds upon habitualization and refers to the process by which these habitualized actions and patterns become institutionalized within society. 

The question in this paper would be whether habitualization and institutionalization started from hunting and gathering society. The answer is assertive. In hunting and gathering societies, daily routines and practices become habitualized through repeated actions and experiences. For example, the methods of hunting, gathering, food preparation, and social interactions within the group follow established patterns that are learned and repeated over time. These habitualized behaviors contribute to the stability and predictability of life within the society. 

Similarly, hunting and gathering societies have institutions that formalize and perpetuate social norms, values, and practices. These institutions may include kinship systems, oral traditions, rituals, and communal decision-making processes. For instance, kinship structures define familial roles and relationships, while oral traditions preserve cultural knowledge and beliefs. Rituals and ceremonies may institutionalize important social events, such as initiations, rites of passage, or religious ceremonies.

Habitualization and institutionalization evolved over time but it it is an underlying condition for social integration in all types of societies. Homogenous and heterogeneous societies dealt with these two processes in different ways.  Individuals within a particular cultural group may have habitualized ways of greeting, eating, dressing, and communicating that reflect their shared cultural background. In heterogeneous societies, various institutions emerge to formalize and regulate social norms, values, and practices across diverse groups. 

Resources-

Berger, P., & Luckmann, T. (2016). The social construction of reality. In J. A. Hannigan (Ed.), Social theory re-wired (pp. 110-122). Routledge.